Corrections_Today_September-October_2022_Vol.84_No.5

disproportionately high in prison populations (Vacca, 2004). Offenders who are close to their release dates may also need to be prioritized for participation in vocational programs to learn skills leading to employment upon release (Dunleavy et al., 2008). The benefits of prison education programs are clear. There seem to be certain types of prison education pro grams that are most effective in reducing recidivism and improving the behavior of those imprisoned. While many types of prison education programs are offered, studies have shown long-lasting impacts on recidivism as a result of high school equivalency, vocational programs result ing in credentials and postsecondary education programs (Castro et al., 2018; Vacca, 2004; Ellison et al., 2017). The implication for prisons is to focus on educational programs that encourage action-oriented and brain stimulating programming (Reese, 2017; Banich et al., 2015). Further, education programs that provide creden tials that lead to improved employment potential are most effective, as employment is closely related to recidivism (Lockwood et al., 2012). Conclusion Reese (2017) wrote “one cannot discuss the rehabili tation of inmates and the reintegration of parolees and probationers without talking about education. Education is liberation inside and outside the prison walls” (p. 94). This statement supports the critical nature of offering various types of educational programs within the prison environment. He went on to write, “Education is the centerpiece of all human transformation — there is no hope and there are no dreams without it” (p. 94). The current goal of incarceration is to rehabilitate the offender (Hughes et al., 2021). The studies presented demonstrate evidence carceral education opportunities such as high school equivalency, vocational and postsecondary programs, are effective in reducing recidivism and helping offenders manage their incarceration (Castro et al., 2018; Vacca, 2004; Ellison et al., 2017). These opportunities are often offered through partnerships with community colleges and other institu tions of higher learning. Evidence presented indicates state and federal spending on prison education initia tives are worth the investment to assist inmates in their likelihood of employment, one of the most important

Implications A staggering amount of American taxpayers’ money is spent on prison education each year. Vera Institute of Justice (2021) reported $43 billion was spent to provide education in prisons in 2015. Despite this statistic, Austin (2017) wrote prison education is more cost-effective than housing prisoners who are released and return to prison. Vacca (2004) acknowledged carceral education programs save the country hundreds of millions of dollars per year because it is more expensive to house prisoners than to have employed citizens in the community. Vacca (2004) acknowledged carceral education programs save the country hundreds of millions of dollars per year because it is more expensive to house prisoners than to have employed citizens in the community. A wide variety of prison programs are offered within institutions throughout the nation with a limited number of students who can participate. Though lower academic achievement contributes to a higher likelihood of re cidivism, Cochran et al. (2020) found prison education programs were more effective with those who entered prison with low educational scores. An important implica tion is prison leaders should provide targeted educational opportunities for those with the lowest achievement levels. Matching offenders with programs that target their specific needs is most effective (Cochran et al., 2020). Duke (2018) conducted a meta-analysis of studies and found that Black/African American men who have prior education levels of high school diploma or lower would benefit most from prison academic and vocational pro grams. This is actionable information, as Black/African American men with those levels of prior education are

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