Corrections_Today_March_April_2023_Vol.85_No.2

■ F AMILY SUPPORT

Discussion With some studies providing conflicting results, it is clear more research needs to be conducted directly with the children of incarcerated parents. Much of the research conducted is via secondary accounts or secondary data. More research should be conducted with incarcerated children to understand their perspective from their own narratives. In general, studies which focus on the children of incarcerated parents are criticized for their lack of scientific rigor and small-scale sample size. Yet, although the types of internalizing and externalizing behaviors may differ (depending on context and age), the data seems pretty clear that maintaining healthy parent-child bonds is beneficial for both child and parent, whereas attachment disruption can be damaging to both. Through carceral parenting programs, incarcerated parents have the ability to learn and enhance vital parenting skills to aid in devel oping and maintaining healthy bonds with their children. These bonds are emotionally and behaviorally beneficial for the child and parent alike. Children who have healthy attachments to their primary caregivers are more likely to have healthier relationships as adults. A child who has more access to their incarcerated parent may have the opportunity to feel more connected and perhaps less worried about the parent. CBT appears to be one recom mendation for helping children of incarcerated parents but recommendations for correctional facilities and schools were also discussed. More services are needed, and better guidelines should be developed, for supporting children and their parents. Appropriate interventions not only help to reestablish bonds but serve to improve the child and parent’s opportunity for future success. ENDNOTES 1 Correa, N. P., Hayes, K. A., Bhalakia, A. M., Lopez, K. K., Cupit, T., Kwarteng-Amaning, V., Keefe, R. J., Greeley, C. S., & Van Horne, B. S. Parents’ perspective on the impact of their incarceration on children and families. Family Relations, 70, 162-170. DOI:10.1111/fare.12529 2 Boudin, C. (2011). Children of incarcerated parents: The child’s constitutional right to the family relationship. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 101 (1), 77-118. 3 Cyphert, A. B. (2018). Prisoners of fate: The challenges of creating change for children of incarcerated parents. Maryland Law Review, 77 , 385-426. 4 Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: Challenges and resiliency in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30 , 1119- 1130. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.02.006 5 Ibid

6 Purvis, M. (2013). Paternal incarceration and parenting programs in prison: A review paper. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 20 (1), 9–28. 7 Glaze, L. E., & Maruschak, L. M. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children (NCJ 222984). Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://www.bjs.gov/ content/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf 8 Synder, Z. K. (2009). Keeping families together: The importance of maintaining mother–child contact for incarcerated women. Women and Criminal Justice, 19 (1), 37–59. 9 Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: Challenges and resiliency in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30 , 1119- 1130. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.02.006 10 Mumola, C. J., (2000). Incarcerated parents and their children. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. Washington D.C.: BJS. 11 See Boudin, 2011 12 Greenfeld, L., & Snell, T. (2000). Women offenders. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report . Washington, D.C.: US Department of Justice. 13 Ibid 14 Dallaire, D. H., Ciccone, A., & Wilson, L. C. (2010). Teachers experiences with and expectations of children with incarcerated parents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 281-290. 15 See Glaze & Maruschak, 2008. 16 Harm, N. J., & Phillips, S. D. (2001). You can’t go home again: Women and criminal recidivism. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32 (3), 3–21. 17 See Glaze & Maruschak, 2008. 18 Ibid 19 See Purvis, 2003. 20 Kazura, K. (2001). Family programming for incarcerated parents: A needs assessment among inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 32 (4), 67–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01822-1 21 Saunders, V. (2016). Children of prisoners — Children’s decision making about contact. Child & Family Social Work, 22 , 63–72. 22 Ibid. 23 Pollizzotto, M. A. (2020). New York State of mind: Parental incarceration and children’s visitation in New York State. Family Court Review, 58 (2), 619-634. 24 Rubenstein, B. Y., Toman, E. L., & Cochran, J. C. (2021). Socioeconomic barriers to child contact with incarcerated parents. Justice Quarterly, 38 (4), 725-751. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2019.1606270 25 See Mumola, 2000. 26 Christian, S. (2009). Children of incarcerated parents . Washington, D.C.: National Conference of State Legislatures. Available: https://www.cga.ct.gov/ coc/PDFs/fatherhood/NCSL_ChildrenOfIncarceratedParents_0309.pdf 27 Dunlea, J. P., Redeate, W. G., & Heiphetz, L. (2020). Enduring positivity: Children of incarcerated parents report more positive than negative emotions when thinking about close others. Journal of Cognition and Development, 21 (4), 494-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2020.1797749 28 See Mumola, 2000. 29 Pritzl, K., Milavetz, Z., Cuthrell, H., Muentner, L., & Poehlmann-Tynan, J. (2022) Young children’s contact with their parents in jail and child behavior problems. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 61 (2), 88-105. DOI: 10.1080/10509674.2021.2018381 30 Kremer, K. P., Christensen, K. M., Stump, K. N., Stelter, R. L., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2021). The role of visits and parent child relationship quality in promoting positiove outcomes of children of incarcerated parents. Child and Family Social work, 27, 206-216.

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