Corrections_Today_March_April_2021_Vol.83_No.2

et al., 2004; Kerbs & Jolley, 2009; Phillips, 1963). How- ever, more recent research opposes that theory and states that little is known about how self-perception changes with age (Freund & Isaacowitz, 2014). Sex and gender When discussing sex and gender, we must be clear on the differences which exist. The sex of the individual can be determined by physical genitalia or genetic factors. Cambridge Dictionary defines sex as, “the state of being either male or female, or all males or all females consid- ered as a group.” Gender, on the other hand, is defined very clearly in an article found in the Medical News Today Newsletter. According to the article, gender refers to the cultural and social roles of each sex within society. Schmader et al. (2004) examined women’s self- perception. The study surveyed women who majored in career fields that were math related. The Schmader et al. (2004) study found women who believed in the legiti- macy of gender difference were more likely to agree with the gender stereotypes. The stereotype about women and math skills predicted more negative self-perception of math competence. Simply said, women’s perception of themselves were more negative. Gender differences exist in self-evaluation (Beyers, 1998; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2014; Schmader et al., 2004). Studies show these differences to be evident when examining recall biases and math competence. Fe- male self-evaluations have been found to be inaccurately low compared to the males and that males either over- estimated or accurately evaluated when self-evaluating (Beyers, 1998). An additional study explored Subjectivity Assessed Intelligence (SAI) and found gender differ- ences in self-evaluation of performance and intelligence. Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham (2014) supported the findings of women under-estimating their intelligence and performance. Mental and physical health Additional research on self-perception explored its connection to mental and physical health. Studies show that an individual’s self-perception when self-reporting is the same as other’s observations except when asking about current thoughts of suicide (Kaplan et al., 1994). Those individuals that are not aware of their mental distress and who positively distort self-views may have

poorer mental and physical functioning (Bergeron, 2004). What people do by way of health behaviors, physical activity and dietary behaviors influence self-perception (Woekel et al., 2013). There is a connection between en- gaging in good physical health behaviors and developing positive self-views (Woekel et al., 2013).

There is a connection between engaging in good physical health behaviors and developing positive self-views (Woekel et al., 2013).

Self-reports Other research has shown findings on self-reports. The merge of shared reality between self-judgment and the judgment of others, has been considered by some re- searchers as confirmation for the accuracy of self-reports (McCrae, 1982; Spain et al., 2000). Self-reports are based on self-perception of the individual. People observe their behaviors and define themselves on the foundation of their behavior as they perceive it (Fazio, 2014: Robak, 2001). Self-reports of personality were more accurate than other reports when predicting daily emotional expe- rience (Spain et al., 2000). Race Research has found race differences in self-reports. Studies have concluded that Caucasians give more negative self-evaluations than Black/African Americans (Tashakkar & Thompson, 1991; Trzesniewski, Don- nellan, Moffitt, Robins, Poulton, & Caspi, 2006). In an article by Hughes & Deno (1989), the authors studied personal self-esteem, racial self-esteem, and personal ef- ficacy (beliefs about one’s ability to accomplish specific tasks). This national study involved Black Americans and showed how these three dimensions are unified. These researchers wrote:

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