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made it mandatory for federal prisoners functioning at less than sixth-grade comprehension to enroll in ABE for 90 days (Ryan 63). One of the most notable differences seen in the second model’s development was a large funding increase. Specifically, Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania had a goal to encourage improvements in correctional education and funded a significant amount for the National Institute for Corrections (“Histori cal Development” 49). This included a national survey to find the best programs used across the country, and ten model programs were chosen and described in the National Institute for Corrections (“Historical Devel opment” 49). These model literacy programs utilized specialized reading and tutoring techniques to teach students with learning disabilities (“Historical Develop ment” 49). The focus on literacy development and program ming diversified the approach in how literacy should be taught among incarcerated students. For instance, some correctional facilities adopted literacy programs that introduced a new method of instructing incarcerated students by utilizing the Literacy Volunteers of America techniques and materials (“Historical Development” 50). The Literacy Volunteers of America trained prisoner tutors several hours per week to assist teachers during class (“Historical Development” 50). Due to this new approach to training and teaching students, the impact on educational achievement was tremendous. The evi dence of its effectiveness was shown in the 1990s when teachers became increasingly aware and knowledgeable of how to help children with learning needs (“Historical Development” 48). Another significant addition to the development of literacy programs was The Correctional Education Col lege of the Air (CEA/COA) program (Meyer and Randel 225). This program was developed in response to litera ture about the positive impact post-secondary education participation has for incarcerated students (Dewey et al. 57; Meyer and Randel 224). The CEA/COA is also high lighted for its cost-effective approach in creating readily accessible post-secondary education programs (Meyer and Randel 224). Within the 2010-2011 academic year, the CEA/COA served over 50 institutions in 13 states within the United States (Meyer and Randel 227). Since then, the active model toward prison literacy programs by the CEA/COA was to highlight basic level education,

secondary level education (GED or high school), career/ technical education, cognitive education, post-secondary education, transitional education and specialized in struction in special education and learning disabilities (“Historical Development” 49; Reed 543). Initial outcomes From the inception of education and literacy pro grams, between 1992 to 2003, GED classes were available in most prisons (Greenberg et al. 27). Imple menting education and literacy programs proved successful, especially since only 43% of prisoners who began their incarceration had a high school diploma or a GED/high school equivalency (Greenberg et al. 27). Greenberg et al. found it imperative to invest and expand education programs into literacy since the more educa tion prisoners attain, the higher their average prose, document and quantitative literacy (28). Additionally, enrolling in literacy and education programs resulted in significantly fewer incidents of arrest upon release than offenders who did not enroll in literacy programs (Ryan and McCabe 134). Consequent ly, recidivism rates were reduced much more, which was used as an incentive by some prisons to encourage prisoners to attend educational programs (Ryan and McCabe 134; Stickle and Schuster 1266). Furthermore, some prisons go so far as to allow reduced sentences to incentivize prisoners to enroll in literacy programs (Ryan and McCabe 134). With the focus on literacy pro grams and initiatives like CEA/COA, nearly all 50 states have literacy programs for their prisoners, continuing the progress toward a better future (Meyer and Randel 227; Ryan and McCabe 134). Prison literacy programs As previously discussed, low literacy levels are one of the key issues faced by prisoners, especially within the United States (US Department of Justice; Novek 7). Low literacy levels can contribute to the cyclical nature of recidivism, as students who struggle with literacy may face barriers to employment opportunities after being released from prison (Davis and Ostini 9). Low literacy of parents can also affect their children, as illiteracy and low literacy are identified as being an intergenerational

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